Coming to Terms Essay Example for Free

Coming to Terms Essay Her argument was based fully on fast food restaurants adopting ideas from fine dining restaurants . Falk inserts an inordinate amount of her own feelings on the topic and doesn’t analyze the subject as well as she should have. She focuses mainly on the fast food business while lacking in her analysis of fine dining. She also should have made the paper more about what caused the changes in the restaurant business instead of the changes themselves. In the essay Falk has many examples of foods and restaurants that have changed and became noticed for their modern style, such as Panera Bread and Chipotle. She appeals to a large audience by adding examples many people can relate too. On the other hand, her article is extremely biased in multiple ways. She makes too many generalizations that may not particularly be true in some cases. For example she states, â€Å" the fact that people today hate to make choices, preferring to have the best of both worlds † (Falk,33). This may not be exactly true for everyone. She uses the previous quote to support her argument in saying that since people are so indecisive quick casual would be a good alternative. Another instance is when she states, â€Å"There are significantly more calories at table service restaurants† (Falk, 35). The prior quote shows her bias towards dine-in restaurants because she only uses negative examples of fine dining. Furthermore, her essay is very restricted. She aims her essay towards adults and college students with her use of language and examples of certain restaurants; But a lot of her writing makes you think otherwise. The core of her essay is stating that quick casual is the new alternative to fine and fast food dining. Though she never takes into consideration the ideas of being a vegetarian or that college students have dining halls or even the fact that not all people eat out. She had good arguments but they did not affect the people they were meant to affect. One of her main argumentative statements is at the very end of her essay when she says, â€Å"The country is focused on problems with obesity and poor eating habits .. until major changes are made, food prepared at home will almost always be healthier than food eaten away from home† (Falk,36) . These type of statements should have been more prominent in the essay, she only brings up this type of conflict in the last paragraph and nowhere else. By tying in the eating at home or the obesity aspect more, she would have had a strong argument. As mention earlier, if she touched on all the aspects possible that would have made her essay more relevant Some of her most outstanding focuses were â€Å"Trend Mapping† and the â€Å"Trickle Down Theory†. Trend mapping helps culinary experts predict which menu items will be popular in the future. The trickle down theory helps quick casual restaurants enhance their menu with more fine dining dishes. These ideas help customers make smart choices. I was impressed with her inclusion of these two innovations because they go right along with her topic and fit into the main idea . Even though her essay was poorly structured at some points, there were also some good points throughout. I feel that her style was very laid back and readable because she used places her target audience have been and can relate to, as examples. Brenda Falk creates this article with the objective of describing the many similarities between the food industry and that the in between â€Å"quick casual† style is the most convenient. She successfully describes these similarities and elaborates on the new innovative style but never fully creates a legitimate argument. If she discussed more on the topic of eating at home or the factor of money or even brought in some positives of fine dining, that could have created a stronger argument. She has a great sense of organization and style but needs to focus more on her analysis of the topic.

Effect of Early Numeracy Learning on Numerical Reasoning

Effect of Early Numeracy Learning on Numerical Reasoning FROM NUMERICAL MAGNITUDE TO FRACTIONS Early understanding of numerical magnitude and proportion is directly related to subsequent acquisition of fraction knowledge Abstract Evidence from experiments with infants concerning their ability to reason with numerical magnitude is examined, along with the debate relating to the innateness of numerical reasoning ability. The key debate here concerns performance in looking time experiments, the appropriateness of which is examined. Subsequently, evidence concerning how children progress to reasoning with proportions is examined. The key focus of the debate here relates to discrete vs continuous proportions and the difficulties children come to have when reasoning with discrete proportions specifically. Finally, the evidence is reviewed into how children come to reason with fractions and, explicitly, the difficulties experienced and why this is the case. This is examined in the context of different theories of mathematical development, together with the effect of teaching methods. Early understanding of numerical magnitude and proportion is directly related to subsequent acquisition of fraction knowledge Understanding of magnitude and fractions is crucial in contemporary society. Relatively simple tasks such as dividing a restaurant bill or sharing cake at a birthday party rely on an understanding of these concepts in order to determine how much everyone requires to pay towards the bill or how much cake everyone can receive. Understanding of these concepts is also required to allow calculation of more complex mathematical problems, such as solving equations in statistical formulae. It is therefore evident that a sound understanding of magnitude and fractions is required in everyday life and whilst most adults take for granted the ability to calculate magnitudes and fractions, this is not so for children, who require education to allow the concepts to be embedded into their understanding. De Smedt, Verschaffel, and Ghesquià ¨re (2009) suggest that children’s performance on magnitude comparison tasks predicts later mathematical achievement, with Booth and Siegler (2008) further arguing for a causal link between early understanding of magnitude and mathematical achievement. Despite these findings, research tends to highlight problems when the teaching of whole number mathematics progresses to teaching fractions. Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, and Geary (2012) suggest that performance on fraction tasks is indicative of overall mathematics performance levels, although overall mathematical ability does not predict ability on these tasks. This article reviews the current position of research into how young children, between birth and approximately seven years of age come to understand magnitude and how this relates to the subsequent learning of fractions. By primarily reviewing research into interpretation of numerical magnitude, the first section of this paper will have a fairly narrow focus. This restriction is necessary due to the large volume of literature on the topic of infant interpretation of magnitude generally and is also felt to be appropriate due to the close link between integers, proportions and fractions. An understanding of magnitude is essential to differentiate proportions (Jacob, Vallentin, Nieder, 2012) and following the review of literature in respect of how magnitude comes to be understood, the paper will review the present situation in respect of how young children understand proportions. Finally, the article will conclude with a review of where the literature is currently placed in respect of how young children’s understanding of magnitude and proportion relates to the learning of fractions and briefly how this fits within an overall mathematical framework. Is the understanding of numerical magnitude innate? There are two opposing views in respect of the innateness of human understanding of number and magnitude. One such view suggests that infants are born with an innate ability to carry out basic numerical operations such as addition and subtraction (Wynn, 1992, 1995, 2002). In her seminal and widely cited study, Wynn (1992) used a looking time procedure to measure the reactions of young infants to both possible and impossible arithmetical outcomes over three experiments. Infants were placed in front of a screen with either one or two objects displayed. A barrier was then placed over the screen, restricting the infants’ view, following which an experimenter either â€Å"added† or â€Å"removed† an item. The infants were able to see the mathematical operation taking place due to a small gap at the edge of the screen which showed items being added or subtracted, but were not able to view the final display until the barrier was removed. Following the manipulation and r emoval of the barrier, infants’ looking times were measured and it was established that overall infants spent significantly more time looking at the impossible outcome than the correct outcome. These results were assumed to be indicative of an innate ability in human infants to manipulate arithmetical operations and, accordingly, distinguish between different magnitudes. The suggestion of an innate human ability to manipulate arithmetical operations is given further credence by a number of different forms of replication of Wynn’s (1992) original study (Koechlin, Dehaene, Mehler, 1997; Simon, Hespos, Rochat, 1995). Feigneson, Carey, and Spelke (2002) and Uller, Carey, Huntley-Fenner, and Klatt (1999) also replicated Wynn, although interpreted the results as being based on infant preference for object-based attention as opposed to an integer-based attention. Despite replications of Wynn (1992), a number of studies have also failed to replicate the results, leading to an alternative hypothesis. Following a failure to replicate Wynn, Cohen and Marks (2002) posit that infants distinguish magnitude by favouring more objects over less and also display a preference towards the number of objects which they have initially been presented, regardless of the mathematical operation carried out by the experimenter. This suggestion arises from the results of an experiment where Wynn’s hypothesis of innate mathematical ability was tested against the preference hypothesis noted above. Further evidence against Wynn (1992) exists following an experiment by Wakeley, Rivera, and Langer (2000), who argue that no systematic evidence of addition and subtraction exists, instead the ability to add and subtract progressively develops during infancy and childhood. Whilst this does not specifically support Cohen and Marks, it does cast doubt on basic arithme tical skills and, accordingly, the ability to work with magnitude existing innately. How do children understand magnitude as they age? By six-months old, it is suggested that infants employ an approximate magnitude estimation system (McCrink Wynn, 2007). Using a looking-time experiment to assess infant attention to displays of pac-men and dots on screen, infants appeared to attend to novel displays with a large difference in ratio (2:1 to 4:1 pac-men to dots, 4:1 to 2:1 pac-men to dots), with no significant difference in attention times to novel stimuli with a closer ratio (2:1 to 3:1 pac-men to dots, 3:1 to 2:1pac-men to dots). These results were interpreted to exemplify an understanding of magnitudes with a degree of error, a pattern already existing in the literature on adult magnitude studies (McCrink Wynn, 2007). Unfortunately, one issue in respect of interpreting the results of experiments with infants is that they cannot explicitly inform experimenters of their understanding of what has happened. It has been argued that experiments making use of the looking-time paradigm cannot be properly understood as exp erimenters must make an assumption that infants will have the same expectations as adults, a matter which cannot be appropriately verified (Charles Rivera, 2009; K. Mix, 2002). As children come to utilise language, words which have a direct relationship to magnitude (eg., â€Å"little,† â€Å"more,† â€Å"lots†) enter into their vocabulary. The use of these words allows researchers to investigate how they come to form internal representations of magnitude and how they are used to explicitly reveal understanding of such magnitudes. Specifically isolating the word â€Å"more†, children appear to develop an understanding of the word as being comparatively domain neutral (Odic, Pietroski, Hunter, Lidz, Halberda, 2013). In an experiment requesting children aged 2.0 – 4.0 (mean age = 3.2) to distinguish which colour on pictures of a set of dots (numeric task) or blobs of â€Å"goo† (non-numeric task) represented â€Å"more†, it was established that no significant difference exists between performance on both numeric and non-numeric tasks. In addition, it was found that children age approximately 3.3 years and above performed significantly above chance, whereas those children below 3.3 years who participated did not. This supports the assertion that the word â€Å"more† is understood by young children as both comparative and in domain neutral terms not specifically related to number or area. It could also be suggested that it is around the age of 3.3 years when the word â€Å"more † comes to hold some sort of semantic understanding in relation to mathematically based stimuli (Odic et al., 2013). It is difficult to compare this study to that of McCrink and Wynn (2007) due to the differing nature of methodology. It would certainly be of interest to researchers to investigate the possibility of some sort of comparison research, however, as it is unclear how the Odic et al. (2013) study fits with the suggestion of an approximate magnitude estimation system, notwithstanding the use of language. Generally, children understand numerical magnitude on a logarithmic basis at an early age, progressing to a more linear understanding of magnitude as they age (Opfer Siegler, 2012), a change which is beneficial. It is suggested that the more linear a child’s mental representation of magnitude appears, the better their memory for magnitudes will be (Thompson Siegler, 2010). There are a number of reasons for this change in understanding, such as socioeconomic status, culture and education (Laski Siegler, in press). In the remainder of this section, the understanding of magnitude in school age children (up to approximately seven years old) is reviewed, although only the effect of education will be referred to. The remainder of the reasons are noted in order to exemplify some issues which can also have an impact on children’s development of numerical magnitude understanding. As children age, the neurological and mental representations of magnitude encompass both numeric and non-numeric stimuli in a linear fashion (Opfer Siegler, 2012). On this basis, number line representations present a reasonable method for investigation of children’s’ understanding of magnitude generally. One method for examining number line representations of magnitude in children uses board games in which children are required to count moves as they play. Both prior to and subsequent to playing the games, the children involved in the experiment are then presented with a straight line, the parameters of which are explained, and requested to mark on the line where a set number should be placed. This allows researchers to establish if the action of game playing has allowed numerical and/or magnitude information to be encoded. In an experiment of this nature with pre-school children (mean age 4 years 8 months), Siegler and Ramani (2009) established that the use of a linea r numerical board game (10 spaces) enhanced children’s understanding of magnitude when compared to the use of a circular board game. It is argued that the use of a linear board game assists with the formation of a retrieval structure, allowing participants to encode, store and retrieve magnitude information for future use. Similar results have subsequently been obtained by Laski and Siegler (in press), working with slightly older participants (mean age 5 years 8 months), who sought to establish the effect of a larger board (100 spaces). In this case, the structure of the board ruled out high performance based on participant memory of space location on the board. In addition, verbalising movements by counting on was found to have a significant impact on retention of magnitude information. A final key question relating to understanding of magnitude relates to the predictive value of current understanding on future learning. When education level was controlled for, Booth and Siegler (2008) found a significant correlation between the pre-test numerical magnitude score on a number line task and post-test scores of 7 year-olds on both number line tasks and arithmetic problems, This discovery has been supported by a replication by De Smedt et al, (2009) and these findings together suggest that an understanding of magnitude is fundamental in predicting future mathematical ability. It is also clear that a good understanding of magnitude will assist children in subsequent years when the curriculum proceeds to deal more comprehensively with matters such as proportionality and fractions. From numerical magnitudes to proportions Evidence reviewed previously in this article tends to suggest that children have the ability to distinguish numerical magnitudes competently by the approximate age of 7 years old. Unfortunately, the ability to distinguish between magnitudes does not necessarily suggest that they are easily reasoned with by children. Inhelder and Piaget (1958) first suggested that children were unable to reason with proportions generally until the transition to the formal operational stage of development, at around 11-12 years of age. This point is elucidated more generally with the argument that most proportional reasoning tasks prove difficult for children, regardless of age (Spinillo Bryant, 1991). However, more recent research has suggested that this assertion does not strictly hold true, with children as young as 4 and 5 years old able to reason proportionally (Sophian, 2000). Recent evidence suggests that the key debate in terms of children’s ability to reason with proportions concerns t he distinction between discrete quantities and continuous quantities. Specifically, it is argued that children find dealing with problems involving continuous proportions simpler than those involving discrete proportions (Boyer, Levine, Huttenlocher, 2008; Jeong, Levine, Huttenlocher, 2007; Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001; Spinillo Bryant, 1999). In addition, the â€Å"half† boundary is also viewed as being of critical importance in children’s proportional reasoning and understanding (Spinillo Bryant, 1991, 1999). These matters and suggested reasons for the experimental results are now discussed. Proposing that first order relations are important in children’s understanding of proportions, Spinillo and Bryant (1991) suggest that children should be successful in making judgements on proportionality using the relation â€Å"greater than†. In addition, it is suggested that the â€Å"half† boundary also has an important role in proportional decisions. Following an experiment which requested children make proportional judgements about stimuli which either crossed or did not cross the â€Å"half† boundary, it was found that children aged from approximately 6 years were able to reason relatively easily concerning proportions which crossed the â€Å"half† boundary. From these results, it was drawn that children tend to establish part-part first order relations to deal with proportion tasks (eg. reasoning that one box contains â€Å"more blue than white† bricks). It was also suggested that the use of the â€Å"half† boundary formed a fi rst reference to children’s understanding of part-whole relations (eg. reasoning that a box contained â€Å"half blue, half white† bricks). No express deviation from continuous proportions was used in this experiment and, therefore, the only matter which can be drawn from this result is that children as young as 6 years old can reason about continuous proportions. In a follow up experiment, Spinillo and Bryant (1999) again utilised their â€Å"half† boundary paradigm with the addition of continuous and discrete proportion conditions. Materials used in the experiment were of an isomorphic nature. The results broadly mirrored Spinillo and Bryant’s (1991) initial study, in which it was noted that the â€Å"half† boundary was important in solving of proportional problems. This also held for discrete proportions in the experiment despite performance on these tasks scoring poorly overall. Children could, however, establish that half of a continuous quantity is identical to half of a discrete quantity, supporting the idea that the â€Å"half† boundary is crucial to reasoning about proportions (Spinillo Bryant, 1991, 1999). Due to the similar nature of materials used in this experiment, a further research question was posited in order to establish whether a similar task with non-isomorphic constituents would have any impac t on the ability of participants to reason with continuous proportions (Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001). Using models of pizza and chocolates for the continuous and discrete conditions respectively, participants carried out a matching task where they were required to match the ratio in the experimenters’ model with their own in either an isomorphic (pizza to pizza) or non-isomorphic (chocolate to pizza) condition. In similar results to the previous experiments, it was found that participants had less problems dealing with continuous proportions than discrete proportions. In addition, performance was superior in the isomorphic condition compared to the non-isomorphic condition. An interesting finding, however, is that problems involving â€Å"half† were successfully resolved, irrespective of condition, further adding credence to the importance of this feature. Due to participants in this experiment being slightly younger than those in Spinillo and Bryant’s (1991, 1999) experiments, it is argued that the â€Å"half† boundary may be used for proportional reasoning tasks at a very early age (Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001). In addition to the previously reviewed literature, there is a vast body of evidence the difficulty of discrete proportional reasoning compared to continuous proportional reasoning in young children. Yet to be identified, however, is a firm reason as to why this is the case. Two specific suggestions as to why discrete reasoning appears more difficult than continuous reasoning are now discussed. The first suggestion is based on a theory posited by Modestou and Gagatsis (2007) related to the improper use of contextual knowledge. An error occurs when certain knowledge, applicable to a certain context, is used in a setting to which it is not applicable. A particular problem identified with this form of reasoning is that it is difficult to correct (Modestou Gagatsis, 2007). This theory is applied to proportional reasoning by Boyer et al, (2008), who suggest that the reason children find it difficult to reason with discrete proportions is because they use absolute numerical equivalence to explain proportional problems. Continuous proportion problems are presumably easier due to the participants using a proportional schema to solve the problem, whereas discrete proportions are answered using a numerical equivalence schema where it is not applicable. An altogether different suggestion for the issue is made by Jeong et al, (2007), invoking Fuzzy trace theory (Brainerd Reyna, 1990; Reyna Brainerd, 1993). The argument posited is that children focus more on the number of target partitions in the discrete task, whilst ignoring the area that the target partitions cover. It is the area that is of most relevance to the proportion task and, therefore, focussing on area would be the correct outcome. Instead, children appear to instinctively focus on the number of partitions, whilst ignoring their relevance (Jeong et al., 2007), thereby performing poorly on the task. From proportions to fractions In tandem with children’s difficulties in relation to discrete proportions, there is a wealth of evidence supporting the notion that fractions prove difficult at all levels of education (Gabriel et al., 2013; Siegler, Fazio, Bailey, Zhou, 2013; Siegler, Thompson, Schneider, 2011). Several theories of mathematical development exist, although only some propose suggestions as to why this may be the case. The three main bodies of theory in respect of mathematical development are privileged domain theories (eg. Wynn, 1995b), conceptual change theories (eg. Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010) and integrated theories (eg, Siegler, Thompson, Schneider, 2011). In addition to the representation of fractions within established mathematical theory, a further dichotomy exists in respect to how fractions are taught in schools. It is argued that the majority of teaching of fractions is carried out via a largely procedural method, meaning that children are taught how to manipulate fractions with out being fully aware of the conceptual rules by which they operate (Gabriel et al., 2012). Discussion in this section of the paper will focus on how fractions are interpreted within these theories, the similarities and differences therein, together with how teaching methods can contribute to better overall understanding of fractions. Within privileged domain theories, development of understanding of fractions is viewed as secondary to and inherently distinct from the development of whole numbers (Leslie, Gelman, Gallistel, 2008; Siegler et al., 2011; Wynn, 1995b). As previously examined, it is argued that humans have an innate system of numerical understanding which specifically relates to positive integers, he basis of privileged domain theory being that positive integers are â€Å"psychologically privileged numerical entities† (Siegler et al., 2011, p. 274). Wynn (1995b) suggests that difficulty exists with learning fractions due to the fact that children struggle to conceive of them as discrete numerical entities. This argument is similar to that of Gelman and Williams (1998, as cited in Siegler et al., 2011) who suggest that the knowledge of integers presents barriers to learning about other types of number, due to distinctly different properties (eg. assumption of unique succession). Presumably, priv ileged domain theory views the fact that integers are viewed as being distinct in nature from any other type of numerical entity is the very reason for children having difficulty in learning fractions, as their main basis of numerical understanding prior to encountering fractions is integers. Whilst similar to privileged domain theories in some respects, conceptual change theories are also distinct. The basis of conceptual change theories is that concepts and relationships between concepts are not static, but change over time (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). In essence, protagonists of conceptual change do not necessarily dismiss the ideas of privileged domain theories, but allow freedom for concepts (eg. integers) and relationships between concepts (eg. assumption of unique succession) to be altered in order to accommodate new information, albeit that such accommodation can take a substantial period of time to occur (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). Support for conceptual change theory is found in the failure of children to comprehend the infinite number of fractions or decimals between two integers (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). It is argued that the reason for this relates to the previously manifested knowledge of integer relations (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010) and that it is closely related to a concept designated as the â€Å"whole number bias† (Ni Zhou, 2005). The â€Å"whole number bias† can be defined as a tendency to utilise schema specifically for reasoning with integers to reason with fractions (Ni Zhou, 2005) and has been referred to in a number of studies as a possible cause of problems for children’s reasoning with fractions (eg. Gabriel et al., 2013; Meert, Grà ©goire, Noà «l, 2010). Siegler et al, (2011) propose an integrated theory to account for the development of numerical reasoning generally. It is suggested by this theory that the development of understanding of both fractions and whole numbers occurs in tandem with the development of procedural understanding in relation to these concepts. The theory claims that â€Å"numerical development involves coming to understand that all real numbers have magnitudes that can be ordered and assigned specific locations on number lines† (Siegler et al., 2011, p. 274). This understanding is said to occur gradually by means of a progression from an understanding of characteristic elements (eg. an understanding that whole numbers hold specific properties distinct from other types of number) to distinguishing between essential features (eg. different properties of all numbers, specifically their magnitudes) (Siegler et al., 2011). In contrast to the foregoing privileged domain and conceptual change theories, the inte grated theory views acquisition of knowledge concerning fractions as a fundamental course of numerical development (Siegler et al., 2011). Supporting evidence for this theory comes from Mix, Levine and Huttenlocher (1999), who report an experiment where children successfully completed fraction reasoning tasks in tandem with whole number reasoning tasks. A high correlation between performances on both tasks is reported and it is suggested that this supports the existence of a shared latent ability (Mix et al., 1999). One matter which appears continuously in fraction studies is the pedagogical method of delivering fraction education. A number of researchers have argued that teaching methods can have a significant impact on the ability of pupils to acquire knowledge about fractions (Chan, Leu, Chen, 2007; Gabriel et al., 2012). It is argued that the teaching of fractions falls into two distinct categories, teaching of conceptual knowledge and teaching of procedural knowledge (Chan et al., 2007; Gabriel et al., 2012). In an intervention study, Gabriel et al, (2012) segregated children into two distinct groups, the experimental group receiving extra tuition in relation to conceptual knowledge of fractions, with the control group following the regular curriculum. The experimental results suggested that improved conceptual knowledge of fractions (eg. equivalence) allowed children to perform better when presented with fraction problems (Gabriel et al., 2012). This outcome supports the view that more ef fort should be made to teach conceptual knowledge about fractions, prior to educating children about procedural matters and performance on fractional reasoning may be improved. Conclusion and suggestions for future research In this review, the process of how children come to understand and reason with numerical magnitude, progressing to proportion and finally fractions has been examined. The debate concerning the innateness of numerical reasoning has been discussed, together with how children understand magnitude at a young age. It has been established that children as young as six months old appear to have a preference to impossible numerical outcomes, although it remains unclear as to why this is. The debate remains ongoing as to whether infants are reasoning mathematically, or simply have a preference for novel situations. Turning to proportional reasoning, evidence suggests a clear issue when children are reasoning with discrete proportions as opposed to continuous ones. Finally, evidence concerning how children reason with fractions and the problems therein was examined in the context of three theories of mathematical development. Evidence shows that all of the theories can be supported to some ext ent. A brief section was devoted to how teaching practice effects children’s learning of fractions and it was established that problems exist in terms of how fractions are taught, with too much emphasis placed on procedure and not enough placed on conceptual learning. With the foregoing in mind, the following research questions are suggested to be a good starting point for future experiments: How early should we implement teaching of fraction concepts? Evidence from Mix et al, (1999) suggests that children as young as 5 years old can reason with fractions and it may be beneficial to children’s education to teach them earlier; Should fractions be taught with more emphasis on conceptual knowledge? References Bailey, D. H., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., Geary, D. C. (2012). Competence with fractions predicts gains in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 447–455. Booth, J., Siegler, R. (2008). Numerical magnitude representations influence arithmetic learning. Child Development, 79, 1016–1031. Boyer, T. W., Levine, S. C., Huttenlocher, J. (2008). Development of proportional reasoning: where young children go wrong. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1478–1490. Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F. (1990). Inclusion illusion: Fuzzy-trace theory and perceptual salience effects in cognitive development. Developmental Review, 10, 363–403. Chan, W., Leu, Y., Chen, C. (2007). Exploring Group-Wise Conceptual Deficiencies of Fractions for Fifth and Sixth Graders in Taiwan. The Journal of Experimental Education, 76, 26–57. Charles, E. P., Rivera, S. M. (2009). Object permanence and method of disappearance: looking measures further contradict reaching measures. Developmental Science, 12, 991–1006. Cohen, L. B., Marks, K. S. (2002). How infants process addition and subtraction events. Developmental Science, 5, 186–201. De Smedt, B., Verschaffel, L., Ghesquià ¨re, P. (2009). The predictive value of numerical magnitude comparison for individual differences in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103, 469–479. Feigenson, L., Carey, S., Spelke, E. (2002). Infants’ discrimination of number vs. continuous extent. Cognitive Psychology, 44, 33–66. Gabriel, F., Cochà ©, F., Szucs, D., Carette, V., Rey, B., Content, A. (2012). Developing children’s understanding of fractions: An intervention study. Mind, Brain, and Education, 6, 137–146. Gabriel, F., Cochà ©, F., Szucs, D., Carette, V., Rey, B., Content, A. (2013). A componential view of children’s difficulties in learning fractions. Frontiers in psychology, 4(715), 1–12. Geary, D. C. (2006). Development of mathematical understanding. In D. Kuhn, R. Siegler, W. Damon, R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 2, Cognition, Perception and Language (6th ed., pp. 777–810). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Inhelder, B., Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. London: Basic Books. Jacob, S. N., Vallentin, D., Nieder, A. (2012). Relating magnitudes: the brain’s code for proportions. Trends in cognitive sciences, 16, 157–166. Jeong, Y., Levine, S. C., Huttenlocher, J. (2007). The development of proportional reasoning: Effect of continuous versus discrete quantities. Journal of Cognition and Development, 8, 237–256. Koechlin, E., Dehaene, S., Mehler, J. (1997). Numerical transformations in five-month-old human infants. Mathematical Cognition, 3, 89–104. Laski, E. V, Siegler, R. S. (in press). Learning from number board games: You learn what you encode. Developmental Psychology. Leslie, A. M., Gelman, R., Gallistel, C. R. (2008). The generative basis of natural number concepts. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 213–218. McCrink, K., Wy

The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

In The Great Gatsby Fitzgerald offers up commentary on a variety of themes justice, power, greed, and betrayal, the American dream and so on. Each one of these themes is demonstrated through the relationships, which the characters have. Fitzgerald carefully sets up his novel into distinct social groups, in which each character fits. By creating distinct social classes – old money, new money, and no money, Fitzgerald shows the differing in the way relationships turn out. This book offers a vivid peek of what life was like during the 1920’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first relationship introduced in the novel is Tom and Daisy Buchanan. Tom is a very powerful domineering man, very self-centered and self-absorbed. While Daisy is a charming, beautiful lady, with a thrilling voice, she is very self-centered as well. Tom and Daisy’s relationship is undergoing stress. When Daisy notices that her finger is hurt she says, â€Å"You did it, Tom†¦ That’s what I get for marrying a brut of a man, a great big hulking physical specimen (Tom interrupts) â€Å"I hate that word hulking†¦even in kidding.† â€Å"Hulking,† insisted Daisy. (P 16) Daisy knows how to push all of Tom’s buttons and how hard to push them. Daisy tells Nick how cynical she is about everything, she shows her views in the statement â€Å"She told me it was a girl and I turned my head away and wept†¦ all right I’m glad it’s girl. And I hope she’ll be a fool – that’s the best thing a g irl can be in this world, a beautiful little fool.† (P 21). It’s rumored that Tom is having an affair, â€Å"Tom’s got some woman in New York.† (P 19), and from what Daisy says she would just rather not notice what is really happening. Daisy and Tom never seem at peace with each other, just in an oblivious state where nothing can change them. They know â€Å"their place† is together; it suits society, they are perfectly matched. Daisy goes astray with Gatsby. â€Å"As he (Tom) left the room again she got up and went over to Gatsby and pulling his face down, kissing him on the mouth†¦You know I love you.† (P 122-123) Daisy uses Gatsby to rebel against Tom’s infidelity, but would never even consider leaving him, especially for an old flame. They are so materialistic; they except their flawed relationship as normal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Myrtle and Tom have a very fiery relationship.

Korematsu vs. United States :: essays research papers

Fred Korematsu was born in the U.S. in 1919. His parents were born in Japan. Since he was born in the U.S. he was a citizen. He grew up like a normal kid in California. As he grew up, his life was normal, until the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1942. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were regarded as a threat to the U.S. President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, also know as the Exclusion Order. This Order stated that any descendents or immigrants from enemy nations who might be a threat to U.S. security will report to assembly centers for Internment. There were no trials or hearings. They were forced to evacuate and many lost their homes and their businesses. Fred Korematsu refused to go. He was a U.S. citizen. Fred Korematsu was grabbed by police, handcuffed, and taken to jail. His crime -- defying President Franklin Roosevelt's order that American citizens of Japanese descent report to internment camps This action violated Korematsu’s basic constitutional rights. The fourth amendment states, "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized." The government’s actions clearly stepped over the boundaries of the constitution. As a U.S. citizen he should not have been pushed around like that. Korematsu decided to take his case to the court. Korematsu’s case first went to regional court. After being turned down there, he then went to the court of appeals. Being turned down there also, his lawyer appealed to the Supreme Court while he was held in the relocation camp. The Supreme Court decided to take his case, but then made the wrong worst decision ever. They decided to uphold the other courts’ decisions by a vote of six to three. Korematsu lost his case. After the war ended, the internment haunted the nation's conscience as well. In 1948 Congress took the first step in making amends, enacting the Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act to provide some monetary compensation to those who had lost homes and businesses because of the order. In 1980, Congress again opened the internment issue, and this time a stream of witnesses testified, many of them for the first time, of the hardships and psychological trauma they had suffered.

Internet and Politics - Despotic Regimes and Internet Censorship :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The Internet is impossible to censor, right? Not if you are a despotic regime throwing all your resources into it. You won't stop everyone and everything, but if the aim is to prevent enough citizens from getting free speech to topple your regime, then you can succeed. For a start, people can't access the Internet using just brainwaves. They need a computer connected to a wired or wireless phone line. Stopping someone getting access to that, and you stop their Internet. Most countries ruled by authoritarian regimes are poor and have low telephone penetration. There are fewer than nine phone lines per thousand people in China, and three in Vietnam. It is pretty obvious that unlike people in democratic nations, few Vietnamese or Chinese can walk into their study room and log on. Some office workers might have access at work, but someone will likely walk past as they are surfing. The majority of the population must go to Internet cafà ©s. It was at an Internet cafà © in Hanoi that Vietnamese Internet dissident Le Chi Quang was caught by the secret police in February 2002, after the state-owned Internet backbone company FTP spotted Quang, who had posted an article criticising Hanoi's secret donating of land near the border to appease the Chinese regime. In June that year, the regime told all Internet cafà © owners to report on customers accessing blocked sites. The same thing happened in the South. In Saigon in March 2003, democracy activist Dr Nguyen Dan Que, a Nobel Peace Prize nominee, was caught, again at an Internet cafà ©. Both Quang and Que are presently in prison. Even if every household had a telephone and everyone had a computer, free speech could still be blocked. Because the Internet backbones in these countries are controlled by the Communist Parties, it is quite easy for them to block sites. As the Net's secret police put on more and more filters, Net-literate dissidents find more and more ways to work around them. But as all this goes on, it gets harder and harder for less Net-literate people to play the game. The effect, then, is that only a small minority of the population can get around the authorities. And revolutions cannot be started and maintained by small minorities. For democracy to be built up in these countries, millions of their ordinary citizens must be able to be exposed in their daily life to concepts of democracy and freedom. Internet and Politics - Despotic Regimes and Internet Censorship :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers The Internet is impossible to censor, right? Not if you are a despotic regime throwing all your resources into it. You won't stop everyone and everything, but if the aim is to prevent enough citizens from getting free speech to topple your regime, then you can succeed. For a start, people can't access the Internet using just brainwaves. They need a computer connected to a wired or wireless phone line. Stopping someone getting access to that, and you stop their Internet. Most countries ruled by authoritarian regimes are poor and have low telephone penetration. There are fewer than nine phone lines per thousand people in China, and three in Vietnam. It is pretty obvious that unlike people in democratic nations, few Vietnamese or Chinese can walk into their study room and log on. Some office workers might have access at work, but someone will likely walk past as they are surfing. The majority of the population must go to Internet cafà ©s. It was at an Internet cafà © in Hanoi that Vietnamese Internet dissident Le Chi Quang was caught by the secret police in February 2002, after the state-owned Internet backbone company FTP spotted Quang, who had posted an article criticising Hanoi's secret donating of land near the border to appease the Chinese regime. In June that year, the regime told all Internet cafà © owners to report on customers accessing blocked sites. The same thing happened in the South. In Saigon in March 2003, democracy activist Dr Nguyen Dan Que, a Nobel Peace Prize nominee, was caught, again at an Internet cafà ©. Both Quang and Que are presently in prison. Even if every household had a telephone and everyone had a computer, free speech could still be blocked. Because the Internet backbones in these countries are controlled by the Communist Parties, it is quite easy for them to block sites. As the Net's secret police put on more and more filters, Net-literate dissidents find more and more ways to work around them. But as all this goes on, it gets harder and harder for less Net-literate people to play the game. The effect, then, is that only a small minority of the population can get around the authorities. And revolutions cannot be started and maintained by small minorities. For democracy to be built up in these countries, millions of their ordinary citizens must be able to be exposed in their daily life to concepts of democracy and freedom.

Comparison Paper

Comparison Paper Brittany Seawright NUR/ 408 February 11, 2013 Beth Edwards Comparison Paper According to a report published in 1988 by the Institute of Medicine, public health was defined as â€Å"what we, as a society, do collectively to assure the conditions in which people can be healthy† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 7, 2012). The mission of public health was â€Å"to generate organized community effort to address the public interest in health by applying scientific and technical knowledge to prevent disease and promote health† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. , 2012). The definition and mission of public health has not changed. â€Å"In the United States, the local-state-federal partnership includes federal agencies, the state and territorial public health agencies, and the 3200 local public health agencies† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 990, 2012). Healthy People 2020 and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are agencies of public health at the national level . The state health department is an agency of public health at the state and county levels. The interaction of these agencies is critical to effectively leverage precious resources, both financial and personnel, and to protect and promote the health of populations† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 990, 2012). History of Public Health People who are born today can expect to live 30 years longer than those who were born in 1990 (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). Advocacy begun in the late 1910s, policymakers and social welfare representatives strived to constitute national health insurance (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). In 1965 congress amended the Social Security Act to include health insurance benefits for older adults (Medicare) and increased care for the poor (Medicaid)† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 36, 2012). The Social Security Act did not cover preventive services, and home health care was only reimbursed with a doctors order (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). Local and state health dep artments changed their policies to allow agencies o reimburse home care as bedside nursing, which reduced health promotion and prevention (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). In the 1970s, nursing was viewed highly for improving the health care of communities (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). â€Å"Nurses made significant contributions to the hospice movement, the development of birthing centers, daycare for older adults and disabled persons, drug abuse programs, and rehabilitation services in long-term care† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 38, 2012).In the 1980s, there was concern about high cost of health care in the United States, and health promotion and disease prevention services were not top priority because funding was more essential in other areas (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). Fewer nurses were employed by official public health agencies because of low state and federal funds (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). During the 1900s and 2000s, the focus was on cost, improving quality of care, a ccess to health care services, and advancing the public health nursing profession (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). Federal public health agencies develop regulations that implement policies formulated by Congress, provide a significant amount of funding to state and territorial health agencies for public health activities, survey the nation’s health status and health needs, set practices and standards, provide expertise that facilitates evidence-based practice, coordinate public health activities that cross state lines, and support health services research† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 90, 2012). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention was established on July 1, 1946 on a floor of a small building in Atlanta, Georgia (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). â€Å"The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention was initially focused on fighting Malaria by killing mosquitos† (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Para 2, 2012).Presently, the  "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the nation’s premier public health agency†, and has a mission to â€Å"collaborate to create the expertise, information, and tools that people and communities need to protect their health- through promotion, prevention of disease, injury and disability, and preparedness for new health threats† (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Para 2, 2012). Healthy People 2020 is also a national public health agency. â€Å"Since 1979 the U. S. Surgeon General has worked with local, state, and federal agencies; the private sector; and the U. S. population to evelop objectives for preventing disease and promoting health for the nation† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 999, 2012). Healthy People 2020 objectives were presented in 2009 to the public, and one of the goals is to â€Å"promote quality of life, healthy development and healthy behaviors across all life stages† (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 999, 2012). The health department is a state public health agency that prevents disease, improves health and wellness, promotes quality of life, and assists the people of each region in building healthy communities (South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, 2012).The county health department is where much of the direct health care is provided to the people of the communities in each state. County and state level public health agencies collaborate and partner with national agencies to promote healthy communities. Local public health departments are responsible for implementing and enforcing local, state, and federal public health codes and ordinances while providing essential public health services (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 1003, 2012). Differences between public and community health Public and community health are specialty areas and each have their own focuses.Public health focuses on the communities and populations as a whole, and community health focuses on the individuals, famili es, and groups within a community. Both specialty areas have the same goal, and that is to promote health and prevent disease and illness. â€Å"Public health is not a branch of medicine; it is an organized community approach designed to prevent disease, promote health, and protect populations† † (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 990, 2012). The settings of where public health nurses and community health nurses work are different.Public health nurses may work for organizations or government areas, such as the state health department. Community health nurses may work in schools, clinics, hospitals, home health, county health department, or nursing homes. Health care is changing and improving every day. Nurses have a huge role in promoting health and preventing disease and illness in populations. Public health is built on partnerships (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). Governmental agencies at the local, state, and federal levels are partners in the public health system that must work together to develop and implement solutions hat will improve a community’s health (Stanhope & Lancaster, p. 990, 2012). References Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Our History – Our Story. http://www. cdc. gov/about/history/ourstory. htm South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control. (2012). Region 2 Public Health Office. Retrieved from http://www. scdhec. gov/health/region2/index. htm Stanhope, M. , & Lancaster, J. (2012). Public Health Nursing: Population-Centered Health Care in the Community (8th ed. ). (Elsevier, Ed. ) Maryland Heights, Missouri: Mosby

Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is a platform that was established by the government as a set of laws and policies for preventing discrimination against individuals. It was for the purpose of offering equal opportunities for employment, education, and business. Several of our formal Presidents has signed executive orders that was meant for all hiring to be equal regardless of race, color, or national origin with all government contractors and the other specifically for associations which received federal contracts and subcontracts eliminating discrimination within the workforce towards individuals centered on their race, color, religion, and national origin. Later the affirmative action was modified to include no discriminating against one's sex. Affirmative action also established preferential handling for minorities and women in the hiring process and the chance to receive a higher education. Affirmative action holds private employers accountable as well.During the Civil Rights movement, affirmation action was a tool that proposed opportunities for women and minorities and to provide equality for them. There are noted changes in how colleges recruit and enroll students, housing and also how using public transportation where now blacks can sit anywhere since Rosa Parks. Since affirmative action was primarily intended on improving chances for African Americans in employment and education, but there is still a low percentage of improvement that is why an executive order was signed and it required all government and private industry jobs to increase the number of women, disable individuals and minorities to either receive employment or to have the ability to gain an education or have additional training for work enhancement. There are numerous organization that uses affirmative action and equal employment opportunity policies within their business structure there is still a controversy today surrounding these issues. Are the equal employment opportunity and affirmative action policies have the same meaning? Let's talk about equal employment opportunity first, the definition is that it bans all types of discrimination. This means that no matter the race, or gender everyone has the same chance of obtaining and getting promotions as well as training within the workforce. Whereas, affirmative action focus on past discrimination acts which were meant to give women, disabled individuals, and the minorities an equal footing in gaining employment and a higher education.It was to create equality between the workers and employers however it has caused extra adversity in the workforce. Because many believed that jobs held by whites were being jeopardized. Has affirmative action been consistently and effectively used to create a more robust and productive workforce? I would say yes; affirmative action has made it possible for many to see and earn their desired goals such as their life dreams. I feel that there are still many obstacles but if one applies themselves there are no limitations. Barak Obama was our nation's first black President and there are many who hold prominent leadership roles that also includes women. Recently in the news, it was announced that the FBI, for the first time in history that there may be a woman heading this department.Though affirmative action has come along way there are those who still discriminate and don't offer equal chances for others to succeed. Affirmative action has allowed the workforce to become more diverse in races, genders, and cultures. We must remember that the affirmative action is not about letting minorities to get into college or to get a job, but it's about giving qualified individuals no matter their race a chance that they may not get otherwise.In conclusion has affirmative action been consistently and effectively used to create a more robust and productive workforce? I would say yes it has worked extremely well. I hope to see it continue because there are many more who could benefit from this program. Affirmative Action â€Å"An action or policy favoring those who tend to suffer from discrimination, especially in relation to employment or education† – affirmative action, also commonly referred to as the paradox positive discrimination. 1 Affirmative action was designed as a temporary measure to insure a â€Å"leveled playing field† for all Americans specifically minorities and women. The affirmative action measure was created to be a catalyst in ending racial and gender discrimination in the workplace and was to be retracted once the presumable â€Å"playing field† was leveled. However, through various flaws and shortcomings in the policy, it grew into a form of reverse discrimination where individuals that were well qualified for positions were turned down in lieu of minorities. When it was created, the affirmative action policy was a necessary step in insuring equality for all, but twenty-first century America has many restrictions and guidelines to prevent employers from discriminating against someone based on their race, gender, religion and national origin, proving affirmative action to be irrelevant. The essayist chose this topic because of her interest in the diversity of America’s current workforce. After various courses in economics as well as a course on public policy she became interested in programs designed to enhance social welfare in the United States of America. Also with growing concerns of immigration and the dwindling of whites as a majority in the United States, the topic of changes in the American workforce are sure to arise. The idea of affirmative action has drawn many supporting and opposing views since President John F. Kennedy first introduced it 1961 with the Executive Order number 10925. The order commanded all federal contractors (the public sector) to take â€Å"affirmative action to ensure that applicants are treated equally without regard to race, color, religion, sex or national origin. 2 As years went on, the progressive Civil Rights’ movement evolved the idea of affirmative action and called for it to encompass all public and private sectors in the United States. Affirmative action had many supporters including the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that was created to insure equal opportunity in the workplace for all Americans. The idea of positive discrimination was rejected in the 1978 landmark court case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, where the United States Supreme Court ruled that race could not be used as an admission standard to a university and â€Å"disadvantaged minority students† were not permitted to have admission spots reserved for them. Supporters of affirmative action believe that aiding those who have been historically disadvantage will insure the end of the cycle of poverty and call for a justified wealth distribution throughout the United States. It is statically proven that on average, minorities are less wealthy than whites. 4 Statistics also prove that individuals in low-income households are less likely to receive a college education therefore making them unqualified for most jobs in America’s current workforce. This cycle continues as these unqualified workers who were not able to get high paying jobs have children who are subsequently born into low-income households. In order for this cycle to discontinue, a policy should be put in place that will provide them an advantage over the wealthy white job seekers; the affirmative action policy provides this advantage. Sacrificing the well being of white males for a short period of time in order to catapult minorities and women into becoming qualified employees is a belief that many supporters of affirmative action hope for. Although the affirmative action policy was meant to be a temporary aid, a decade after it was created it morphed into a hypocritical attempt to fix a solution. College students from St. Norbert College, believe that â€Å"[it‘s] really justifying racism by it's own actions. Its policies totally judge people solely on skin color and gender. That is discrimination in itself. †6 Those in opposition of affirmative action believe that it is not fair to discriminate against someone that has worked hard to become qualified for a job position. They believe that other programs such as scholarships and extra tutoring programs for the underprivileged are better solutions to solving inequality in the workplace. Once minorities become equally educated and acquire skills for jobs in today’s workforce, they will inherently level the playing field on their own. The issue of affirmative action has acquired many praises and oppositions. From when it was enacted over fifty years ago, it has transformed into a controversial subject. Although this topic was more relevant during the period of the Civil Right’s Movement, it has recently gained momentum with the growing minority population. Affirmative Action Affirmative action is a practice that is intended to promote opportunities for the â€Å"protected class† which includes minorities, woman, and people with disabilities or any disadvantaged group for that matter. With affirmative action in place people of this protected class are given an even playing field in terms of hiring, promotion, as well as compensation. Historically, affirmative action is only known to have protected African Americans and woman; however that is not the case. Affirmative action protects a variety of people and without this statute many people included in this protected class would be unfairly discriminated against.There are many reasons why affirmative action should continue to be a part of workplace such as: †¢Fosters diversity. †¢Educates our workforce on diversity. †¢Equips employees to achieve their highest contribution to the mission. †¢Challenges employees to make their maximum contribution to the mission. †¢Encourages em ployees to offer differing views and suggestions toward achieving organizational goals. †¢Respects and appreciates individual differences. †¢Provides equitable treatment and opportunities. †¢Creates and maintains an inclusive approach to all systems, policies, and practices (i. . , promotions, performance ratings, awards, training, assignments, and access to services). †¢Facilitates culture change to support wider diversity. People who are opposed to affirmative action often argue that it gives an unfair advantage to any member of this protected class; however that is far from the case. Affirmative action programs do not give racial preferences nor create quotas. In fact affirmative action programs are flexible therefore creating a legitimate selection process in the hiring aspect of the workplace.Although not in the workplace, an example of a flexible affirmative action program was seen at Ohio State University where they adopted the 10 percent rule. This rule a dmits students who are in the top 10% of their high school graduating class. Doing so allows colleges to take minorities who excel in marginal urban schools. This is a very legal way in ensuring minorities an even playing field (Campus that Looks like America). Because of the effectiveness of affirmative action other statues have been put into place to ensure that other members of this protected class are not getting discriminated against such as the Rehabilitation Act.The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which makes it unlawful for certain employers to discriminate against a qualified individual exclusively by reason of her or his disability. The Rehabilitation Act does not specifically address medical inquiries, although it provides that the judicial standards used to determine whether an employer has unlawfully discriminated shall be the standards applied under the ADA. This is merely one of many statutes that were created as a part of affirmative action to promote equal employment.Cl early, with all of the mandates that were branched off of affirmative action the need for this program in the workplace is vital. Affirmative action promotes diversity which is known to be a vital part of any company’s success. Many companies even the U. S Government pride their selves on diversity and use various affirmative action programs to achieve such a company culture. For example the U. S. Census Bureau recently conducted a case study regarding the issue of diversity. The Census Bureau defines adversity as the all of the ways in which we differ.Among these dimensions are race, gender, age, disability, religion, sexual orientation and child/elder care responsibilities. The United States Government in acted a program within the Census Bureau in 1994 under the leadership of President Clinton, in hopes that he could build â€Å"a government that looks like America. † Further, he stated that: â€Å"Diversity transcends race and gender, affirmative action and Equal Employment Opportunity. It must encompass a fundamental appreciation of one another and a respect for both our similarities and our differences.It must include a heartfelt respect in attitude and in behavior towards those of different race, gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnicity and those with disabilities — all the facets that make each individual the unique and precious resource that each of us is. † In conclusion affirmative action is a vital part of society because it gives everyone a fair opportunity succeed regardless of race, gender, ethnicity or background. It also provides diversity in the workplace which will accurately reflects the community. . â€Å" Works Cited Merritt, J. (2002, March 10). Wanted: A Campus That Looks Like America – Businessweek.Businessweek – Business News, Stock Market & Financial Advice. Retrieved September 4, 2012, from http://www. businessweek. com/stories/2002-03-10/wanted-a-campus-that-looks-like-america Jacobs, Ro ger. â€Å"Disability Discrimination, Reasonable Accommodation, and the Modified Commute. † 36. 4 (2011): 59-68. Print. Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO): Policy Statements. (n. d. ). Census Bureau Homepage. Retrieved September 10, 2012, from http://www. census. gov/eeo/policy_statements/ Why Affirmative Action is Necessary in the Workplace Lawrence Smith James Lee Andrea Willis Affirmative Action â€Å"An action or policy favoring those who tend to suffer from discrimination, especially in relation to employment or education† – affirmative action, also commonly referred to as the paradox positive discrimination. 1 Affirmative action was designed as a temporary measure to insure a â€Å"leveled playing field† for all Americans specifically minorities and women. The affirmative action measure was created to be a catalyst in ending racial and gender discrimination in the workplace and was to be retracted once the presumable â€Å"playing field† was leveled. However, through various flaws and shortcomings in the policy, it grew into a form of reverse discrimination where individuals that were well qualified for positions were turned down in lieu of minorities. When it was created, the affirmative action policy was a necessary step in insuring equality for all, but twenty-first century America has many restrictions and guidelines to prevent employers from discriminating against someone based on their race, gender, religion and national origin, proving affirmative action to be irrelevant. The essayist chose this topic because of her interest in the diversity of America’s current workforce. After various courses in economics as well as a course on public policy she became interested in programs designed to enhance social welfare in the United States of America. Also with growing concerns of immigration and the dwindling of whites as a majority in the United States, the topic of changes in the American workforce are sure to arise. The idea of affirmative action has drawn many supporting and opposing views since President John F. Kennedy first introduced it 1961 with the Executive Order number 10925. The order commanded all federal contractors (the public sector) to take â€Å"affirmative action to ensure that applicants are treated equally without regard to race, color, religion, sex or national origin. 2 As years went on, the progressive Civil Rights’ movement evolved the idea of affirmative action and called for it to encompass all public and private sectors in the United States. Affirmative action had many supporters including the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that was created to insure equal opportunity in the workplace for all Americans. The idea of positive discrimination was rejected in the 1978 landmark court case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, where the United States Supreme Court ruled that race could not be used as an admission standard to a university and â€Å"disadvantaged minority students† were not permitted to have admission spots reserved for them. Supporters of affirmative action believe that aiding those who have been historically disadvantage will insure the end of the cycle of poverty and call for a justified wealth distribution throughout the United States. It is statically proven that on average, minorities are less wealthy than whites. 4 Statistics also prove that individuals in low-income households are less likely to receive a college education therefore making them unqualified for most jobs in America’s current workforce. This cycle continues as these unqualified workers who were not able to get high paying jobs have children who are subsequently born into low-income households. In order for this cycle to discontinue, a policy should be put in place that will provide them an advantage over the wealthy white job seekers; the affirmative action policy provides this advantage. Sacrificing the well being of white males for a short period of time in order to catapult minorities and women into becoming qualified employees is a belief that many supporters of affirmative action hope for. Although the affirmative action policy was meant to be a temporary aid, a decade after it was created it morphed into a hypocritical attempt to fix a solution. College students from St. Norbert College, believe that â€Å"[it‘s] really justifying racism by it's own actions. Its policies totally judge people solely on skin color and gender. That is discrimination in itself. †6 Those in opposition of affirmative action believe that it is not fair to discriminate against someone that has worked hard to become qualified for a job position. They believe that other programs such as scholarships and extra tutoring programs for the underprivileged are better solutions to solving inequality in the workplace. Once minorities become equally educated and acquire skills for jobs in today’s workforce, they will inherently level the playing field on their own. The issue of affirmative action has acquired many praises and oppositions. From when it was enacted over fifty years ago, it has transformed into a controversial subject. Although this topic was more relevant during the period of the Civil Right’s Movement, it has recently gained momentum with the growing minority population. Affirmative Action Affirmative action is a practice that is intended to promote opportunities for the â€Å"protected class† which includes minorities, woman, and people with disabilities or any disadvantaged group for that matter. With affirmative action in place people of this protected class are given an even playing field in terms of hiring, promotion, as well as compensation. Historically, affirmative action is only known to have protected African Americans and woman; however that is not the case. Affirmative action protects a variety of people and without this statute many people included in this protected class would be unfairly discriminated against.There are many reasons why affirmative action should continue to be a part of workplace such as: †¢Fosters diversity. †¢Educates our workforce on diversity. †¢Equips employees to achieve their highest contribution to the mission. †¢Challenges employees to make their maximum contribution to the mission. †¢Encourages em ployees to offer differing views and suggestions toward achieving organizational goals. †¢Respects and appreciates individual differences. †¢Provides equitable treatment and opportunities. †¢Creates and maintains an inclusive approach to all systems, policies, and practices (i. . , promotions, performance ratings, awards, training, assignments, and access to services). †¢Facilitates culture change to support wider diversity. People who are opposed to affirmative action often argue that it gives an unfair advantage to any member of this protected class; however that is far from the case. Affirmative action programs do not give racial preferences nor create quotas. In fact affirmative action programs are flexible therefore creating a legitimate selection process in the hiring aspect of the workplace.Although not in the workplace, an example of a flexible affirmative action program was seen at Ohio State University where they adopted the 10 percent rule. This rule a dmits students who are in the top 10% of their high school graduating class. Doing so allows colleges to take minorities who excel in marginal urban schools. This is a very legal way in ensuring minorities an even playing field (Campus that Looks like America). Because of the effectiveness of affirmative action other statues have been put into place to ensure that other members of this protected class are not getting discriminated against such as the Rehabilitation Act.The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which makes it unlawful for certain employers to discriminate against a qualified individual exclusively by reason of her or his disability. The Rehabilitation Act does not specifically address medical inquiries, although it provides that the judicial standards used to determine whether an employer has unlawfully discriminated shall be the standards applied under the ADA. This is merely one of many statutes that were created as a part of affirmative action to promote equal employment.Cl early, with all of the mandates that were branched off of affirmative action the need for this program in the workplace is vital. Affirmative action promotes diversity which is known to be a vital part of any company’s success. Many companies even the U. S Government pride their selves on diversity and use various affirmative action programs to achieve such a company culture. For example the U. S. Census Bureau recently conducted a case study regarding the issue of diversity. The Census Bureau defines adversity as the all of the ways in which we differ.Among these dimensions are race, gender, age, disability, religion, sexual orientation and child/elder care responsibilities. The United States Government in acted a program within the Census Bureau in 1994 under the leadership of President Clinton, in hopes that he could build â€Å"a government that looks like America. † Further, he stated that: â€Å"Diversity transcends race and gender, affirmative action and Equal Employment Opportunity. It must encompass a fundamental appreciation of one another and a respect for both our similarities and our differences.It must include a heartfelt respect in attitude and in behavior towards those of different race, gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnicity and those with disabilities — all the facets that make each individual the unique and precious resource that each of us is. † In conclusion affirmative action is a vital part of society because it gives everyone a fair opportunity succeed regardless of race, gender, ethnicity or background. It also provides diversity in the workplace which will accurately reflects the community. . â€Å" Works Cited Merritt, J. (2002, March 10). Wanted: A Campus That Looks Like America – Businessweek.Businessweek – Business News, Stock Market & Financial Advice. Retrieved September 4, 2012, from http://www. businessweek. com/stories/2002-03-10/wanted-a-campus-that-looks-like-america Jacobs, Ro ger. â€Å"Disability Discrimination, Reasonable Accommodation, and the Modified Commute. † 36. 4 (2011): 59-68. Print. Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO): Policy Statements. (n. d. ). Census Bureau Homepage. Retrieved September 10, 2012, from http://www. census. gov/eeo/policy_statements/ Why Affirmative Action is Necessary in the Workplace Lawrence Smith James Lee Andrea Willis